On the night of June 18, 860, a thunderstorm was raging
over Constantinople (also known as Tsarhorod in Old Rus’). The secure Greeks
were making merry and tower guards were drunk, being so certain that no
harm could befall their queen of cities’ impregnable stone walls. In the
morning, Constantinople was shocked: several hundreds of foreign ships
were lined up menacingly in the Golden Horn, the bay the entry to which
was especially closely guarded. A new, hitherto unknown, enemy came under
the walls of the Byzantine capital. The Greeks soon came to know its name:
Rus’. Since that famous expedition, Rus’es or Rhos, as the Greeks called
them, became known on the international arena. Greek chroniclers described
this foray in detail. Nestor attached so much importance to this expedition
that he decided to take it as a departure point in his systematic description
of our history: “In the year 860 the Rus’ land acquired its name.”
WHAT CAUSED THE EXPEDITION
From the 860s until 882, Kyiv was ruled by two brother
princes Askold and Dir. There is much controversy and mystery surrounding
these figures. The only thing that brooks no doubt is that the Kyivan princes
commanded a strong military force and were so powerful that they could
not only guarantee the independence of Rus’ but also challenge their mighty
neighbors.
The immediate reason for the expedition was the beating
of Rus’ merchants in Constantinople, as then Patriarch Photius wrote. The
Rus’es may have been incited to attack by the Arabs who were at war with
Byzantium at the time. What also lured them, of course, were rich spoils.
It was at that time that the Vikings would make devastating raids in their
dragon-ships along the whole West European coast. Obviously, the Slavic-Varangian
forces followed suit: it is known that two big forays on Greek Black Sea
colonies were made in the first half of the eighth century.
Diplomatic relations could also create tension. In 842,
emperor Theophilus died. It is quite probable that his son Michael III
did not haste to confirm the old treaty on “peace and love.” This could
also have prompted Askold and Dir to launch an expedition against Constantinople
in order to show their might to the Rhomaioi (as the Byzantines called
themselves), for Byzantium recognized only strong rulers.
SITUATION IN CONSTANTINOPLE
The Rus’ chose an extremely auspicious moment for attack,
which testifies to their good knowledge of the situation in the Greek capital.
As early as in the spring, the 40,000-strong Greek troops, commanded by
Emperor Michael and his uncle, Caesar Bardas, were fielded on the eastern
border to counter the Arabs. But the navy was sent to the island of Crete
against pirates who harassed merchant ships a great deal. Only a relatively
small garrison, commanded by Nicetas Arethas, fleet admiral and experienced
warlord, was left in Constantinople.
One should note one more quite eloquent detail which shows
how secure the self-confident Greeks felt. Sometime in the early 850s,
after a proposal by outstanding scientist Leo the Mathematician, a warning
lights system was built. There was a line of hilltop stations with mirrors
and large lanterns installed at certain intervals from the eastern borders
to Constantinople, while a special tower, Pharos, was built in the capital
itself.
Once, during a chariot competition participated by Emperor
Michael himself, the latter was approached by a messenger who ran from
Pharos and reported about an Arab attack. “Villain!” Michael exclaimed
in indignation. “How dare you disturb me at a moment when I am expecting
a good omen at the races?” Infuriated, he ordered all the signal stations
burned, so that nobody could bother him with trifles during his favorite
pastime. All this allowed the Rus’es to carry out the expedition so fast
that not a single rumor could outrun them, although the way to Constantinople
was quite long.
THE SIEGE
One can only imagine the horror with which Constantinople
residents watched the enemy armada heading ashore. It seemed to them their
majestic city was being punished by God for its vainglory and depravity.
Patriarch Photius asked in fear in his sermon on the day of attack, “Who
has struck this blow and who has visited his huge wrath on us? Whence is
this terrible northern thunderstorm?”
But still, how many warriors could Askold and Dir really
bring to the walls of Tsarhorod? Most sources quote the figure of 200 ships,
and only the Venetian deacon John mentions 360. A lodiya (light
open boat) could carry only 40-50 people. Thus, a Rus’ druzhyna (military
retinue — Ed.) numbered eight to ten, or at best 15,000-18,000 warriors.
One could hardly hope to capture the mighty fortifications of New Rome
with such a force. What Askold and Dir must have relied on was taking the
Greeks by surprise. They managed to penetrate the bay in the dark of night,
although the entry was closely guarded and locked with a gigantic iron
chain. The Rus’es surmounted this obstacle by the same method that Prince
Oleh would resort to half a century later: they put the boats on rollers
and dragged them over.
Why did the Rus’ strike precisely through the Golden Horn?
The point is that the northern walls on the Blachernae were built later,
so they were much lower and, hence, more accessible. Moreover, it is there
that the church of Panagia of Blachernae, by far the richest cathedral
of Constantinople, was situated.
The Greeks successfully rebuffed the first attacks, for
Rus’ had no experience in capturing fortifications. The stone walls were
up to 30-40 meters high and surrounded with moats. Askold and Dir laid
close siege to Constantinople. The city was stricken with panic and then
famine. Then the Rus’ found a way to surmount the impregnable stone walls:
they began to build an earthen rampart just opposite the church of Blachernae,
intending to break into the queen of cities when the rampart reached the
level of the walls.
MIRACLE OF THE HOLY VIRGIN’S VESTMENTS
I n spite of the ring of siege, the experienced patrician
Arethas still managed to send a messenger to the emperor. Worried, Michael
III and Caesar Bardas immediately rushed to the capital, but without troops.
Perhaps the army was to come later or perhaps the emperor did not dare
to withdraw his troops from the border. The Rus’ again erred: Bardas and
the emperor managed to slip away unnoticed past the guard boats at night.
Having felt the magnitude of the danger, the young Michael
refused pointblank to appear in front of Constantinople residents and spearhead
the defense of the capital. He put on a hair shirt and went barefoot, together
with the Patriarch Photius, to the church of Blachernae. The latter kept
sacred relics: the belt and vestments of the Holy Virgin which Constantine
the Great had brought from Jerusalem. The emperor and the patriarch lay
prone on the stone floor and prayed all night long, calling upon the Mother
of God to save the city.
Simultaneously, Bardas and Arethas opened negotiations
and ordered an underpass be dug exactly where the enemy had build the rampart.
The Rus’ demanded that the treaty of “peace and love” be restored and,
as usual, a heavy indemnity, euphemistically called exchange of gifts,
be paid as compensation for the killing of the Rus’ merchants. Askold and
Dir also demanded a private audience with the Greek emperor. But the frightened
Michael did not even want to hear of that.
When the talks reached an impasse, Patriarch Photius suddenly
decided to take the rescue of the city in his own hands. On the eighth
day of the siege, after a solemn liturgy in the church of Blachernae, the
patriarch addressed the people: “At last, my dear ones, the time has come
to seek help from the Mother of the Word, from Her, our only hope and support.
Ask the Son and our God to intercede for us! Show clearly that ‘the queen
of cities’ is being backed by Your strength!”
Meanwhile, two monks approached the receptacle with the
Holy Virgin’s vestments, axed off the gold and silver ornaments, and cut
through the wooden lid. The patriarch took out the vestments with his own
hands. Coming out of the temple, he went to the city gate. Picking up the
solemn chanting, the crowd followed him. The gate was open, and the huge
pageant began its religious procession. Patriarch Photius was holding the
vestments in his outstretched hands, followed by those who were carrying,
raised high aloft, crosses, icons, and streamers with portraits of the
saints. We can only guess, of course, what kind of psychological effect
this picture made on the pagan Rus’. The only reason by which they could
explain this gallantry of the Greeks was that the latter relied on the
power of their God.
A miracle occurred in this critical moment: the rampart,
almost level with the impregnable walls, suddenly began to drop precipitously:
the Greeks must have destroyed the props in the underpass, so the rampart
caved in. The calculation proved correct: the barbarians were struck by
the might of the Christian God! The procession came uninterrupted as far
as the shore. The Patriarch Photius waded into the water and, precisely
before the eyes of the shocked Rus’, dipped the edge of the sacred vestments.
What followed this was something incomprehensible and mysterious and which
all legends, our and many Greek chronicles interpret as a great miracle.
The Greeks did not believe their own eyes: the pagans suddenly
rushed to their boats and began to cast off in haste. Without raising sails
and using only oars, the Rus’ craft were leaving the Golden Horn, trying
to outrun each other. The moved Constantinople residents shed tears: it
was undoubtedly God’s intervention that managed to save the capital. And
soon thereafter, the patriarch conducted a thanksgiving service at St.
Sophia’s Cathedral, after which he made an inspired speech recorded by
his secretary, the monk George.
What in reality made Askold and Dir lift the siege so hurriedly?
Perhaps the Rus’ were informed that the Greek forces were approaching.
If they had received ransom by that time, as Photius pointed out in his
speech, there was no sense in demanding anything else. Moreover, Constantinople
was known as an impregnable city. And suddenly the rampart caved in, and
the chief Greek magus began to perform sorcery over the water. A church
legend also says that as soon as the vestments were immersed, a terrible
storm broke out and scattered the Rus boats. Struck by the power of the
Greek God, the Rus’ even decided to be baptized.
In reality, though, the storm and baptism of Rus’ was connected
with a different expedition, in 874, under Emperor Basil I and Patriarch
Ignatius.
What the 860 expedition brought the Rus’es was international
recognition. Even Photius had to admit, “A hitherto unknown people has
been greatly acclaimed since it made an expedition against us.”
№13 April 18 2000 «The
Day»
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